Social Intelligence Lab

Volition and Free Will Belief

2021

Genschow, O., Cracco, E., Schneider, J., Protzko, J., Wisniewski, D., Brass, M., & Schooler, J. (2021). Meta-Analysis on Belief in Free Will Manipulations [Preprint]. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/quwgr
```
@techreport{genschowMetaanalysisBeliefFree2021,
  type = {Preprint},
  title = {Meta-Analysis on Belief in Free Will Manipulations},
  author = {Genschow, Oliver and Cracco, Emiel and Schneider, Jana and Protzko, John and Wisniewski, David and Brass, Marcel and Schooler, Jonathan},
  year = {2021},
  month = feb,
  institution = {{PsyArXiv}},
  doi = {10.31234/osf.io/quwgr},
  url = {https://osf.io/quwgr}
}
```
Whether free will exists is a longstanding philosophical debate. Cognitive neuroscience and popular media have been putting forward the idea that free will is an illusion, raising the question of what would happen if people stopped believing in free will altogether. Psychological research has investigated this question by testing the consequences of experimentally weakening people’s belief in free will. The results of these investigations have been mixed, with successful experiments and unsuccessful replications. This raises two fundamental questions that can best be investigated with a meta-analysis: First, can free will beliefs be manipulated and, second, do such manipulations have downstream consequences? In a meta-analysis across 146 experiments (95 unpublished) with a total of 26,305 participants, we show that exposing individuals to anti-free will manipulations decreases belief in free will, g = -0.29, 95% CI = [-0.35, -0.22], and increases belief in determinism, g = 0.17, 95% CI = [0.09, 0.24]. In contrast, we find little evidence for the idea that manipulating belief in free will has downstream consequences after accounting for small sample and publication bias. Together, our findings have important theoretical implications for research on free will beliefs and contribute to the discussion of whether reducing people’s belief in free will has societal consequences.
Genschow, O., Hawickhorst, H., Rigoni, D., Aschermann, E., & Brass, M. (2021). Professional Judges’ Disbelief in Free Will Does Not Decrease Punishment. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12(3), 357–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620915055
```
@article{genschowProfessionalJudgesDisbelief2021,
  title = {Professional {{Judges}}' {{Disbelief}} in {{Free Will Does Not Decrease Punishment}}},
  author = {Genschow, Oliver and Hawickhorst, Heinz and Rigoni, Davide and Aschermann, Ellen and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2021},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Social Psychological and Personality Science},
  volume = {12},
  number = {3},
  pages = {357--362},
  issn = {1948-5506, 1948-5514},
  doi = {10.1177/1948550620915055},
  url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1948550620915055},
  langid = {english}
}
```
There is a debate in psychology and philosophy on the societal consequences of casting doubts about individuals’ belief in free will. Research suggests that experimentally reducing free will beliefs might affect how individuals evaluate others’ behavior. Past research has demonstrated that reduced free will beliefs decrease laypersons’ tendency toward retributive punishment. This finding has been used as an argument for the idea that promoting anti-free will viewpoints in the public media might have severe consequences for the legal system because it may move judges toward softer retributive punishments. However, actual implications for the legal system can only be drawn by investigating professional judges. In the present research, we investigated whether judges ( N = 87) are affected by reading anti-free will messages. The results demonstrate that although reading anti-free will texts reduces judges’ belief in free will, their recommended sentences are not influenced by their (manipulated) belief in free will.
Peng, W., Cracco, E., Troje, N. F., & Brass, M. (2021). Does Belief in Free Will Influence Biological Motion Perception? [Preprint]. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/d8s5a
```
@techreport{pengDoesBeliefFree2021,
  type = {Preprint},
  title = {Does Belief in Free Will Influence Biological Motion Perception?},
  author = {Peng, Wei and Cracco, Emiel and Troje, Nikolaus F. and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2021},
  month = feb,
  institution = {{PsyArXiv}},
  doi = {10.31234/osf.io/d8s5a},
  url = {https://osf.io/d8s5a}
}
```
Previous research suggests that belief in free will correlates positively with intention perception. However, whether belief in free will is also related to more basic social processes is unknown. Based on evidence that biological motion is an intention-carrier, we investigate if belief in free will and related two beliefs, namely belief in dualism and belief in determinism, are associated with biological motion perception. Signal Detection Theory (SDT) was used to measure participants’ ability to detect biological motion from scrambled background noise (d’) and their response bias (c) in doing so. In two experiments, we found that belief in determinism and belief in dualism, but not belief in free will, were associated with the perception of biological motion. However, no causal relationship was found when experimentally manipulating free will-related beliefs. In general, our research suggests that basic social processes, like biological motion perception, can be predicted by high-level beliefs.

2020

Eben, C., Chen, Z., Cracco, E., Brass, M., Billieux, J., & Verbruggen, F. (2020). Are Post-Error Adjustments Influenced by Beliefs in Free Will? A Failure to Replicate Rigoni, Wilquin, Brass and Burle, 2013. Royal Society Open Science, 7(11), 200664. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.200664
```
@article{ebenArePosterrorAdjustments2020,
  title = {Are Post-Error Adjustments Influenced by Beliefs in Free Will? {{A}} Failure to Replicate {{Rigoni}}, {{Wilquin}}, {{Brass}} and {{Burle}}, 2013},
  shorttitle = {Are Post-Error Adjustments Influenced by Beliefs in Free Will?},
  author = {Eben, Charlotte and Chen, Zhang and Cracco, Emiel and Brass, Marcel and Billieux, Jo{\"e}l and Verbruggen, Frederick},
  year = {2020},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Royal Society Open Science},
  volume = {7},
  number = {11},
  pages = {200664},
  issn = {2054-5703},
  doi = {10.1098/rsos.200664},
  url = {https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.200664},
  langid = {english}
}
```
In this pre-registered study, we tried to replicate the study by Rigoni et al. 2013 Cognition 127 , 264–269. In the original study, the authors manipulated the participants’ belief in free will in a between-subject design and subsequently measured post-error slowing (i.e. slower responses after an incorrect trial compared with a correct trial) as a marker of cognitive control. They found less post-error slowing in the group with reduced belief in free will (anti-free will group) compared with a control group in which belief in free will was not manipulated. In the present study, we used the same task procedure and the same free will manipulation (Crick text) in an attempt to replicate these findings. However, we used an online procedure and a larger sample size in order to address concerns about statistical power. Similar to the original study, we also used a questionnaire to measure beliefs in free will as an independent manipulation check. We found a difference in the scores on the questionnaire, thus a reduced belief in free will, after reading the Crick text. However, we did not find any difference in post-error slowing between the anti-free will and control groups. Our findings are in line with several other recent findings suggesting that the Crick text manipulation affects the participants’ self-reported belief in free will but not their behaviour. The present study can be considered a high-powered failed replication attempt.
Liu, Y., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., González, G. F., Rigoni, D., Brass, M., Wiers, R. W., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2020). “Free Won’t” after a Beer or Two: Chronic and Acute Effects of Alcohol on Neural and Behavioral Indices of Intentional Inhibition. BMC Psychology, 8(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-019-0367-z
```
@article{liuFreeWonBeer2020,
  title = {``{{Free}} Won't'' after a Beer or Two: Chronic and Acute Effects of Alcohol on Neural and Behavioral Indices of Intentional Inhibition},
  shorttitle = {``{{Free}} Won't'' after a Beer or Two},
  author = {Liu, Yang and {van den Wildenberg}, Wery P. M. and Gonz{\'a}lez, Gorka Fraga and Rigoni, Davide and Brass, Marcel and Wiers, Reinout W. and Ridderinkhof, K. Richard},
  year = {2020},
  month = dec,
  journal = {BMC Psychology},
  volume = {8},
  number = {1},
  pages = {2},
  issn = {2050-7283},
  doi = {10.1186/s40359-019-0367-z},
  url = {https://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40359-019-0367-z},
  langid = {english}
}
```
Abstract Background Response inhibition can be classified into stimulus-driven inhibition and intentional inhibition based on the degree of endogenous volition involved. In the past decades, abundant research efforts to study the effects of alcohol on inhibition have focused exclusively on stimulus-driven inhibition. The novel Chasing Memo task measures stimulus-driven and intentional inhibition within the same paradigm. Combined with the stop-signal task, we investigated how alcohol use affects behavioral and psychophysiological correlates of intentional inhibition, as well as stimulus-driven inhibition. Methods Experiment I focused on intentional inhibition and stimulus-driven inhibition in relation to past-year alcohol use. The Chasing Memo task, the stop-signal task, and questionnaires related to substance use and impulsivity were administered to 60 undergraduate students (18–25 years old). Experiment II focused on behavioral and neural correlates acute alcohol use on performance on the Chasing Memo task by means of electroencephalography (EEG). Sixteen young male adults (21–28 years old) performed the Chasing Memo task once under placebo and once under the influence of alcohol (blood alcohol concentration around 0.05%), while EEG was recorded. Results In experiment I, AUDIT (Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test) total score did not significantly predict stimulus-driven inhibition or intentional inhibition performance. In experiment II, the placebo condition and the alcohol condition were comparable in terms of behavioral indices of stimulus-driven inhibition and intentional inhibition as well as task-related EEG patterns. Interestingly, a slow negative readiness potential (RP) was observed with an onset of about 1.2 s, exclusively before participants stopped intentionally. Conclusions These findings suggest that both past-year increases in risky alcohol consumption and moderate acute alcohol use have limited effects on stimulus-driven inhibition and intentional inhibition. These conclusions cannot be generalized to alcohol use disorder and high intoxication levels. The RP might reflect processes involved in the formation of an intention in general.

2019

Brass, M., Furstenberg, A., & Mele, A. R. (2019). Why Neuroscience Does Not Disprove Free Will. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 102, 251–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.04.024

@article{brassWhyNeuroscienceDoes2019,
  title = {Why Neuroscience Does Not Disprove Free Will},
  author = {Brass, Marcel and Furstenberg, Ariel and Mele, Alfred R.},
  year = {2019},
  month = jul,
  journal = {Neuroscience \& Biobehavioral Reviews},
  volume = {102},
  pages = {251--263},
  issn = {01497634},
  doi = {10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.04.024},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0149763419300739},
  langid = {english}
}

Genschow, O., Rigoni, D., & Brass, M. (2019). Believing in Free Will Increases Perceived Intentionality of Others’ Behavior [Preprint]. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/wv9du
```
@techreport{genschowBelievingFreeWill2019,
  type = {Preprint},
  title = {Believing in Free Will Increases Perceived Intentionality of Others' Behavior},
  author = {Genschow, Oliver and Rigoni, Davide and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2019},
  month = feb,
  institution = {{PsyArXiv}},
  doi = {10.31234/osf.io/wv9du},
  url = {https://osf.io/wv9du}
}
```
The question of whether free will actually exists has been debated in philosophy for centuries. However, how belief in free will shapes the perception of our social environment still remains open. Here we investigate whether belief in free will affects how much intentionality we attribute to other people. Study 1a and 1b demonstrate a weak positive relation between the strength of belief in free will and the perceived intentionality of soccer players committing handball. This pattern even holds for behavior that is objectively not intentional (i.e., when the player touches the ball accidentally). Going one step further, in Study 2 we find a weak correlation between belief in free will and perceiving intentions in very abstract geometrical shapes.

Genschow, O., Rigoni, D., & Brass, M. (2019). The Hand of God or the Hand of Maradona? Believing in Free Will Increases Perceived Intentionality of Others’ Behavior. Consciousness and Cognition, 70, 80–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2019.02.004

@article{genschowHandGodHand2019,
  title = {The Hand of {{God}} or the Hand of {{Maradona}}? {{Believing}} in Free Will Increases Perceived Intentionality of Others' Behavior},
  shorttitle = {The Hand of {{God}} or the Hand of {{Maradona}}?},
  author = {Genschow, Oliver and Rigoni, Davide and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2019},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Consciousness and Cognition},
  volume = {70},
  pages = {80--87},
  issn = {10538100},
  doi = {10.1016/j.concog.2019.02.004},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053810018304744},
  langid = {english}
}

2018

Representation of Other Agent and Influence of Social Context to Cognition and Behaviour

2021

De Souter, L., Braem, S., Genschow, O., Brass, M., & Cracco, E. (2021). Social Group Membership Does Not Modulate Automatic Imitation in a Contrastive Multi-Agent Paradigm. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(4), 746–759. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021820986528
```
@article{desouterSocialGroupMembership2021,
  title = {Social Group Membership Does Not Modulate Automatic Imitation in a Contrastive Multi-Agent Paradigm},
  author = {De Souter, Laura and Braem, Senne and Genschow, Oliver and Brass, Marcel and Cracco, Emiel},
  year = {2021},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology},
  volume = {74},
  number = {4},
  pages = {746--759},
  issn = {1747-0218, 1747-0226},
  doi = {10.1177/1747021820986528},
  url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1747021820986528},
  langid = {english}
}
```
A key prediction of motivational theories of automatic imitation is that people imitate in-group over out-group members. However, research on this topic has provided mixed results. Here, we investigate the possibility that social group modulations emerge only when people can directly compare in- and out-group. To this end, we conducted three experiments in which we measured automatic imitation of two simultaneously shown hands: one in-group and one out-group hand. Our general hypothesis was that the in-group hand would be imitated more than the out-group hand. However, even though both explicit and implicit manipulation checks showed that we succeeded in manipulating participants’ feelings of group membership, we did not find support for the predicted influence of group membership on automatic imitation. In contrast to motivational theories, this suggests that group membership does not influence who we do or do not imitate, not even in a contrastive multi-agent paradigm.

Krause, J., Romanczuk, P., Cracco, E., Arlidge, W., Nassauer, A., & Brass, M. (2021). Collective Rule-Breaking. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(12), 1082–1095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.08.003

@article{krauseCollectiveRulebreaking2021,
  title = {Collective Rule-Breaking},
  author = {Krause, Jens and Romanczuk, Pawel and Cracco, Emiel and Arlidge, William and Nassauer, Anne and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2021},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Trends in Cognitive Sciences},
  volume = {25},
  number = {12},
  pages = {1082--1095},
  issn = {13646613},
  doi = {10.1016/j.tics.2021.08.003},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1364661321002060},
  langid = {english}
}

Peng, W., Cracco, E., Troje, N. F., & Brass, M. (2021). Does Anxiety Induced by Social Interaction Influence the Perception of Bistable Biological Motion? Acta Psychologica, 215, 103277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103277

@article{pengDoesAnxietyInduced2021,
  title = {Does Anxiety Induced by Social Interaction Influence the Perception of Bistable Biological Motion?},
  author = {Peng, Wei and Cracco, Emiel and Troje, Nikolaus F. and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2021},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Acta Psychologica},
  volume = {215},
  pages = {103277},
  issn = {00016918},
  doi = {10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103277},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0001691821000275},
  langid = {english}
}

2020

Fini, C., Verbeke, P., Sieber, S., Moors, A., Brass, M., & Genschow, O. (2020). The Influence of Threat on Perceived Spatial Distance to Out-Group Members. Psychological Research, 84(3), 757–764. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1091-7

@article{finiInfluenceThreatPerceived2020,
  title = {The Influence of Threat on Perceived Spatial Distance to Out-Group Members},
  author = {Fini, Chiara and Verbeke, Pieter and Sieber, Sophie and Moors, Agnes and Brass, Marcel and Genschow, Oliver},
  year = {2020},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Psychological Research},
  volume = {84},
  number = {3},
  pages = {757--764},
  issn = {0340-0727, 1430-2772},
  doi = {10.1007/s00426-018-1091-7},
  url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00426-018-1091-7},
  langid = {english}
}

2019

Boccadoro, S., Cracco, E., Hudson, A. R., Bardi, L., Nijhof, A. D., Wiersema, J. R., Brass, M., & Mueller, S. C. (2019). Defining the Neural Correlates of Spontaneous Theory of Mind (ToM): An fMRI Multi-Study Investigation. NeuroImage, 203, 116193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116193

@article{boccadoroDefiningNeuralCorrelates2019,
  title = {Defining the Neural Correlates of Spontaneous Theory of Mind ({{ToM}}): {{An fMRI}} Multi-Study Investigation},
  shorttitle = {Defining the Neural Correlates of Spontaneous Theory of Mind ({{ToM}})},
  author = {Boccadoro, Sara and Cracco, Emiel and Hudson, Anna R. and Bardi, Lara and Nijhof, Annabel D. and Wiersema, Jan R. and Brass, Marcel and Mueller, Sven C.},
  year = {2019},
  month = dec,
  journal = {NeuroImage},
  volume = {203},
  pages = {116193},
  issn = {10538119},
  doi = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116193},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053811919307840},
  langid = {english}
}

Carsten, T., Desmet, C., Krebs, R. M., & Brass, M. (2019). Pupillary Contagion Is Independent of the Emotional Expression of the Face. Emotion, 19(8), 1343–1352. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000503

@article{carstenPupillaryContagionIndependent2019,
  title = {Pupillary Contagion Is Independent of the Emotional Expression of the Face.},
  author = {Carsten, Thomas and Desmet, Charlotte and Krebs, Ruth M. and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2019},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Emotion},
  volume = {19},
  number = {8},
  pages = {1343--1352},
  issn = {1931-1516, 1528-3542},
  doi = {10.1037/emo0000503},
  url = {http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/emo0000503},
  langid = {english}
}

Cracco, E., Keysers, C., Clauwaert, A., & Brass, M. (2019). Representing Multiple Observed Actions in the Motor System. Cerebral Cortex, 29(8), 3631–3641. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhy237
```
@article{craccoRepresentingMultipleObserved2019,
  title = {Representing {{Multiple Observed Actions}} in the {{Motor System}}},
  author = {Cracco, Emiel and Keysers, Christian and Clauwaert, Amanda and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2019},
  month = jul,
  journal = {Cerebral Cortex},
  volume = {29},
  number = {8},
  pages = {3631--3641},
  issn = {1047-3211, 1460-2199},
  doi = {10.1093/cercor/bhy237},
  url = {https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/29/8/3631/5122730},
  langid = {english}
}
```
Abstract There is now converging evidence that others’ actions are represented in the motor system. However, social cognition requires us to represent not only the actions but also the interactions of others. To do so, it is imperative that the motor system can represent multiple observed actions. The current fMRI study investigated whether this is possible by measuring brain activity from 29 participants while they observed 2 right hands performing sign language gestures. Three key results were obtained. First, brain activity in the premotor and parietal motor cortex was stronger when 2 hands performed 2 different gestures than when 1 hand performed a single gesture. Second, both individual observed gestures could be decoded from brain activity in the same 2 regions. Third, observing 2 different gestures compared with 2 identical gestures activated brain areas related to motor conflict, and this activity was correlated with parietal motor activity. Together, these results show that the motor system is able to represent multiple observed actions, and as such reveal a potential mechanism by which third-party social encounters could be processed in the brain.
Genschow, O., Bardi, L., Rigoni, D., Uzieblo, K., & Brass, M. (2019). How Do Individuals High in Psychopathic Traits Represent Others’ Beliefs and Actions? [Preprint]. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/2arn3
```
@techreport{genschowHowIndividualsHigh2019,
  type = {Preprint},
  title = {How Do Individuals High in Psychopathic Traits Represent Others' Beliefs and Actions?},
  author = {Genschow, Oliver and Bardi, Lara and Rigoni, Davide and Uzieblo, Katarzyna and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2019},
  month = feb,
  institution = {{PsyArXiv}},
  doi = {10.31234/osf.io/2arn3},
  url = {https://osf.io/2arn3}
}
```
Individuals high in psychopathic traits are known for manipulating others, while having at the same time a lack of empathy. An open question is whether the lack of empathy leads them to represent other persons’ beliefs and actions less strongly or whether their manipulative character leads them to represent other persons’ beliefs and actions more strongly. Confirming past research, three experiments show a negative correlation between psychopathic traits and self-reported empathy. In addition, the results from an implicit Theory of Mind task (Experiment 1) demonstrate that the higher individuals score on psychopathic traits, the more they represent other persons’ beliefs. Additionally, results from an imitation task (Experiment 1) as well as from a Joint Simon task (Experiment 2) demonstrate that high psychopathic traits are predictive for a stronger representation of other persons’ actions. However, a higher-powered study (Experiment 3) could not replicate the finding that psychopathic traits correlate with implicit Theory of Mind and Joint Simon effects. Theoretical implications and limitations of the experiments are discussed.

Ulloa, J. L., Vastano, R., George, N., & Brass, M. (2019). The Impact of Eye Contact on the Sense of Agency. Consciousness and Cognition, 74, 102794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2019.102794

@article{ulloaImpactEyeContact2019,
  title = {The Impact of Eye Contact on the Sense of Agency},
  author = {Ulloa, Jos{\'e} Luis and Vastano, Roberta and George, Nathalie and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2019},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Consciousness and Cognition},
  volume = {74},
  pages = {102794},
  issn = {10538100},
  doi = {10.1016/j.concog.2019.102794},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053810019300960},
  langid = {english}
}

Vanlessen, N., Rigoni, D., Schettino, A., & Brass, M. (2019). I Believe, Therefore I Am: Effects of Self-Control Beliefs on Behavioral and Electrophysiological Markers of Inhibitory and Emotional Attention Control [Preprint]. Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.1101/552570
```
@techreport{vanlessenBelieveThereforeAm2019,
  type = {Preprint},
  title = {I Believe, Therefore {{I}} Am: {{Effects}} of Self-Control Beliefs on Behavioral and Electrophysiological Markers of Inhibitory and Emotional Attention Control},
  shorttitle = {I Believe, Therefore {{I}} Am},
  author = {Vanlessen, Naomi and Rigoni, Davide and Schettino, Antonio and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2019},
  month = feb,
  institution = {{Neuroscience}},
  doi = {10.1101/552570},
  url = {http://biorxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/552570},
  langid = {english}
}
```
Abstract In this study, a placebo/nocebo neuro-stimulation procedure was employed to investigate if expectations about self-control can influence self-control exertion. More specifically, we recorded behavioral and electrophysiological responses in an emotional antisaccade task in a between-subjects design, in which one group was led to believe that self-control was enhanced (MSC group) and the other that self-control was weakened (LSC group). This set-up allowed to investigate both response and emotional inhibition, as well as different stages at which control can be exerted during task performance, using Event-Related Potential (ERP) methods. Results showed that the bogus neuro-stimulation indeed installed the expectation of respectively better or worse self-control capacity, as well as the retrospective evaluation at the end of the experiment that the neuro-stimulation changed their self-control in that direction. Participants in the MSC compared to the LSC group showed higher accuracy in trials in which inhibitory control was necessary (antisaccade trials). ERP results showed no effect of the placebo/nocebo manipulation at the level of attention and inhibitory control. In sum, this study showed that high-order cognitive processes are not immune to the influence of expectations induced by a placebo/nocebo procedure, and shows that instructions alone can induce a placebo/nocebo effect in cognitive functioning.

2018

Cracco, E., Bardi, L., Desmet, C., Genschow, O., Rigoni, D., De Coster, L., Radkova, I., Deschrijver, E., & Brass, M. (2018). Automatic Imitation: A Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 144(5), 453–500. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000143

@article{craccoAutomaticImitationMetaanalysis2018,
  title = {Automatic Imitation: {{A}} Meta-Analysis.},
  shorttitle = {Automatic Imitation},
  author = {Cracco, Emiel and Bardi, Lara and Desmet, Charlotte and Genschow, Oliver and Rigoni, Davide and De Coster, Lize and Radkova, Ina and Deschrijver, Eliane and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2018},
  month = may,
  journal = {Psychological Bulletin},
  volume = {144},
  number = {5},
  pages = {453--500},
  issn = {1939-1455, 0033-2909},
  doi = {10.1037/bul0000143},
  url = {http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/bul0000143},
  langid = {english}
}

Cracco, E., & Brass, M. (2018). Automatic Imitation of Multiple Agents: Simultaneous or Random Representation? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 44(5), 729–740. https://doi.org/10.1037/xhp0000489

@article{craccoAutomaticImitationMultiple2018,
  title = {Automatic Imitation of Multiple Agents: {{Simultaneous}} or Random Representation?},
  shorttitle = {Automatic Imitation of Multiple Agents},
  author = {Cracco, Emiel and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2018},
  month = may,
  journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance},
  volume = {44},
  number = {5},
  pages = {729--740},
  issn = {1939-1277, 0096-1523},
  doi = {10.1037/xhp0000489},
  url = {http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/xhp0000489},
  langid = {english}
}

Cracco, E., Genschow, O., Radkova, I., & Brass, M. (2018). Automatic Imitation of Pro- and Antisocial Gestures: Is Implicit Social Behavior Censored? Cognition, 170, 179–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2017.09.019

@article{craccoAutomaticImitationPro2018,
  title = {Automatic Imitation of Pro- and Antisocial Gestures: {{Is}} Implicit Social Behavior Censored?},
  shorttitle = {Automatic Imitation of Pro- and Antisocial Gestures},
  author = {Cracco, Emiel and Genschow, Oliver and Radkova, Ina and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2018},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Cognition},
  volume = {170},
  pages = {179--189},
  issn = {00100277},
  doi = {10.1016/j.cognition.2017.09.019},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010027717302627},
  langid = {english}
}

Cracco, E., & Brass, M. (2018). Motor Simulation of Multiple Observed Actions. Cognition, 180, 200–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.07.007

@article{craccoMotorSimulationMultiple2018,
  title = {Motor Simulation of Multiple Observed Actions},
  author = {Cracco, Emiel and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2018},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Cognition},
  volume = {180},
  pages = {200--205},
  issn = {00100277},
  doi = {10.1016/j.cognition.2018.07.007},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010027718301902},
  langid = {english}
}

Cracco, E., & Brass, M. (2018). The Role of Sensorimotor Processes in Social Group Contagion. Cognitive Psychology, 103, 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2018.02.001

@article{craccoRoleSensorimotorProcesses2018,
  title = {The Role of Sensorimotor Processes in Social Group Contagion},
  author = {Cracco, Emiel and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2018},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Cognitive Psychology},
  volume = {103},
  pages = {23--41},
  issn = {00100285},
  doi = {10.1016/j.cogpsych.2018.02.001},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010028517303109},
  langid = {english}
}

Genschow, O., Klomfar, S., d’Haene, I., & Brass, M. (2018). Mimicking and Anticipating Others’ Actions Is Linked to Social Information Processing. PLOS ONE, 13(3), e0193743. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193743

@article{genschowMimickingAnticipatingOthers2018,
  title = {Mimicking and Anticipating Others' Actions Is Linked to {{Social Information Processing}}},
  author = {Genschow, Oliver and Klomfar, Sophie and {d'Haene}, Ine and Brass, Marcel},
  editor = {Avenanti, Alessio},
  year = {2018},
  month = mar,
  journal = {PLOS ONE},
  volume = {13},
  number = {3},
  pages = {e0193743},
  issn = {1932-6203},
  doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0193743},
  url = {https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193743},
  langid = {english}
}

Vastano, R., Deschrijver, E., Pozzo, T., & Brass, M. (2018). Temporal Binding Effect in the Action Observation Domain: Evidence from an Action-Based Somatosensory Paradigm. Consciousness and Cognition, 60, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2018.02.002

@article{vastanoTemporalBindingEffect2018,
  title = {Temporal Binding Effect in the Action Observation Domain: {{Evidence}} from an Action-Based Somatosensory Paradigm},
  shorttitle = {Temporal Binding Effect in the Action Observation Domain},
  author = {Vastano, Roberta and Deschrijver, Eliane and Pozzo, Thierry and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2018},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Consciousness and Cognition},
  volume = {60},
  pages = {1--8},
  issn = {10538100},
  doi = {10.1016/j.concog.2018.02.002},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053810017304634},
  langid = {english}
}

Cognitive control/instruction following

2021

Cracco, E., Braem, S., & Brass, M. (2021). Observing Conflicting Actions Elicits Conflict Adaptation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001089

@article{craccoObservingConflictingActions2021,
  title = {Observing Conflicting Actions Elicits Conflict Adaptation.},
  author = {Cracco, Emiel and Braem, Senne and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2021},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: General},
  issn = {1939-2222, 0096-3445},
  doi = {10.1037/xge0001089},
  url = {http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/xge0001089},
  langid = {english}
}

Formica, S., González-García, C., Senoussi, M., & Brass, M. (2021). Neural Oscillations Track the Maintenance and Proceduralization of Novel Instructions. NeuroImage, 232, 117870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117870

@article{formicaNeuralOscillationsTrack2021,
  title = {Neural Oscillations Track the Maintenance and Proceduralization of Novel Instructions},
  author = {Formica, Silvia and {Gonz{\'a}lez-Garc{\'i}a}, Carlos and Senoussi, Mehdi and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2021},
  month = may,
  journal = {NeuroImage},
  volume = {232},
  pages = {117870},
  issn = {10538119},
  doi = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117870},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053811921001476},
  langid = {english}
}

González-García, C., Formica, S., Wisniewski, D., & Brass, M. (2021). Frontoparietal Action-Oriented Codes Support Novel Instruction Implementation. NeuroImage, 226, 117608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117608

@article{gonzalez-garciaFrontoparietalActionorientedCodes2021,
  title = {Frontoparietal Action-Oriented Codes Support Novel Instruction Implementation},
  author = {{Gonz{\'a}lez-Garc{\'i}a}, Carlos and Formica, Silvia and Wisniewski, David and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2021},
  month = feb,
  journal = {NeuroImage},
  volume = {226},
  pages = {117608},
  issn = {10538119},
  doi = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117608},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053811920310934},
  langid = {english}
}

Palenciano, A. F., González-García, C., de Houwer, J., Brass, M., & Liefooghe, B. (2021). Exploring the Link between Novel Task Proceduralization and Motor Simulation. Journal of Cognition, 4(1), 57. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.190

@article{palencianoExploringLinkNovel2021,
  title = {Exploring the {{Link}} between {{Novel Task Proceduralization}} and {{Motor Simulation}}},
  author = {Palenciano, Ana F. and {Gonz{\'a}lez-Garc{\'i}a}, Carlos and de Houwer, Jan and Brass, Marcel and Liefooghe, Baptist},
  year = {2021},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Journal of Cognition},
  volume = {4},
  number = {1},
  pages = {57},
  publisher = {{Ubiquity Press}},
  issn = {2514-4820},
  doi = {10.5334/joc.190},
  url = {http://www.journalofcognition.org/article/10.5334/joc.190/},
  copyright = {Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:    Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution License  that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.  Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.  Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See  The Effect of Open Access ).  All third-party images reproduced on this journal are shared under Educational Fair Use. For more information on  Educational Fair Use , please see  this useful checklist prepared by Columbia University Libraries .   All copyright  of third-party content posted here for research purposes belongs to its original owners.  Unless otherwise stated all references to characters and comic art presented on this journal are \textcopyright, \textregistered{} or \texttrademark{} of their respective owners. No challenge to any owner's rights is intended or should be inferred.},
  langid = {english}
}

Article: Exploring the Link between Novel Task Proceduralization and Motor Simulation

2020

Fini, C., Fischer, M., Bardi, L., Brass, M., & Moors, A. (2020). Support from a TMS/MEP Study for a Direct Link between Positive/Negative Stimuli and Approach/Avoidance Tendencies. Neuropsychologia, 143, 107496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107496

@article{finiSupportTMSMEP2020,
  title = {Support from a {{TMS}}/{{MEP}} Study for a Direct Link between Positive/Negative Stimuli and Approach/Avoidance Tendencies},
  author = {Fini, Chiara and Fischer, Maja and Bardi, Lara and Brass, Marcel and Moors, Agnes},
  year = {2020},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Neuropsychologia},
  volume = {143},
  pages = {107496},
  issn = {00283932},
  doi = {10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107496},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0028393220301676},
  langid = {english}
}

Fischer, M., Fini, C., Brass, M., & Moors, A. (2020). Early Approach and Avoidance Tendencies Can Be Goal-Directed: Support from a Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 20(3), 648–657. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-020-00793-6

@article{fischerEarlyApproachAvoidance2020,
  title = {Early {{Approach}} and {{Avoidance Tendencies}} Can Be {{Goal-Directed}}: {{Support}} from a {{Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study}}},
  shorttitle = {Early {{Approach}} and {{Avoidance Tendencies}} Can Be {{Goal-Directed}}},
  author = {Fischer, Maja and Fini, Chiari and Brass, Marcel and Moors, Agnes},
  year = {2020},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Cognitive, Affective, \& Behavioral Neuroscience},
  volume = {20},
  number = {3},
  pages = {648--657},
  issn = {1530-7026, 1531-135X},
  doi = {10.3758/s13415-020-00793-6},
  url = {https://link.springer.com/10.3758/s13415-020-00793-6},
  langid = {english}
}

Formica, S., González-García, C., & Brass, M. (2020). The Effects of Declaratively Maintaining and Proactively Proceduralizing Novel Stimulus-Response Mappings. Cognition, 201, 104295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104295

@article{formicaEffectsDeclarativelyMaintaining2020,
  title = {The Effects of Declaratively Maintaining and Proactively Proceduralizing Novel Stimulus-Response Mappings},
  author = {Formica, Silvia and {Gonz{\'a}lez-Garc{\'i}a}, Carlos and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2020},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Cognition},
  volume = {201},
  pages = {104295},
  issn = {00100277},
  doi = {10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104295},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010027720301141},
  langid = {english}
}

González-García, C., Formica, S., Liefooghe, B., & Brass, M. (2020). Attentional Prioritization Reconfigures Novel Instructions into Action-Oriented Task Sets. Cognition, 194, 104059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104059

@article{gonzalez-garciaAttentionalPrioritizationReconfigures2020,
  title = {Attentional Prioritization Reconfigures Novel Instructions into Action-Oriented Task Sets},
  author = {{Gonz{\'a}lez-Garc{\'i}a}, Carlos and Formica, Silvia and Liefooghe, Baptist and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2020},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Cognition},
  volume = {194},
  pages = {104059},
  issn = {00100277},
  doi = {10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104059},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S001002771930232X},
  langid = {english}
}

Van der Biest, M., Cracco, E., Wisniewski, D., Brass, M., & González-García, C. (2020). Investigating the Effect of Trustworthiness on Instruction-Based Reflexivity. Acta Psychologica, 207, 103085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103085

@article{vanderbiestInvestigatingEffectTrustworthiness2020,
  title = {Investigating the Effect of Trustworthiness on Instruction-Based Reflexivity},
  author = {{Van der Biest}, Mathias and Cracco, Emiel and Wisniewski, David and Brass, Marcel and {Gonz{\'a}lez-Garc{\'i}a}, Carlos},
  year = {2020},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Acta Psychologica},
  volume = {207},
  pages = {103085},
  issn = {00016918},
  doi = {10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103085},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0001691820300111},
  langid = {english}
}

Vastano, R., Ambrosini, E., Ulloa, J. L., & Brass, M. (2020). Action Selection Conflict and Intentional Binding: An ERP Study. Cortex, 126, 182–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2020.01.013

@article{vastanoActionSelectionConflict2020,
  title = {Action Selection Conflict and Intentional Binding: {{An ERP}} Study},
  shorttitle = {Action Selection Conflict and Intentional Binding},
  author = {Vastano, Roberta and Ambrosini, Ettore and Ulloa, Jos{\'e} L. and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2020},
  month = may,
  journal = {Cortex},
  volume = {126},
  pages = {182--199},
  issn = {00109452},
  doi = {10.1016/j.cortex.2020.01.013},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010945220300381},
  langid = {english}
}

2019

Bundt, C., Bardi, L., Verbruggen, F., Boehler, C. N., Brass, M., & Notebaert, W. (2019). Reward Anticipation Changes Corticospinal Excitability during Task Preparation Depending on Response Requirements and Time Pressure. Cortex, 120, 159–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2019.05.020

@article{bundtRewardAnticipationChanges2019,
  title = {Reward Anticipation Changes Corticospinal Excitability during Task Preparation Depending on Response Requirements and Time Pressure},
  author = {Bundt, Carsten and Bardi, Lara and Verbruggen, Frederick and Boehler, Carsten N. and Brass, Marcel and Notebaert, Wim},
  year = {2019},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Cortex},
  volume = {120},
  pages = {159--168},
  issn = {00109452},
  doi = {10.1016/j.cortex.2019.05.020},
  url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010945219302321},
  langid = {english}
}

Genschow, O., Schuler, J., Cracco, E., Brass, M., & Wänke, M. (2019). The Effect of Money Priming on Self-Focus in the Imitation-Inhibition Task: A Registered Report. Experimental Psychology, 66(6), 423–436. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000466
```
@article{genschowEffectMoneyPriming2019,
  title = {The {{Effect}} of {{Money Priming}} on {{Self-Focus}} in the {{Imitation-Inhibition Task}}: {{A Registered Report}}},
  shorttitle = {The {{Effect}} of {{Money Priming}} on {{Self-Focus}} in the {{Imitation-Inhibition Task}}},
  author = {Genschow, Oliver and Schuler, Johannes and Cracco, Emiel and Brass, Marcel and W{\"a}nke, Michaela},
  year = {2019},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Experimental Psychology},
  volume = {66},
  number = {6},
  pages = {423--436},
  issn = {1618-3169, 2190-5142},
  doi = {10.1027/1618-3169/a000466},
  url = {https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/1618-3169/a000466},
  langid = {english}
}
```
Abstract. The self-sufficiency hypothesis suggests that priming individuals with money makes them focus more strongly on themselves than on others. However, recently, research supporting this claim has been heavily criticized and some attempts to replicate have failed. A reason for the inconsistent findings in the field may lay in the common use of explicit measures, because they tend to rely on one or just a few items and are thus prone to demand effects and low reliability. In the present research, we administered, in two experiments, the imitation-inhibition task – a robust, unobtrusive, and reliable paradigm that is sensitive to self-other focus on a trial-by-trial basis. A pilot study found an increased focus on the self as compared to others when primed with money. Building on this finding, a preregistered high-powered experiment replicated this effect, suggesting that money primes may indeed increase a focus on the self. An additionally carried out meta-analysis indicates that automatic imitation is modulated by self-other focus and that money primes lead to a smaller focus on the self than conventional methods. Overall, the found effects are rather small and several limitations, such as order effects, call for a cautious interpretation of the findings.

Moors, A., Fini, C., Everaert, T., Bardi, L., Bossuyt, E., Kuppens, P., & Brass, M. (2019). The Role of Stimulus-Driven versus Goal-Directed Processes in Fight and Flight Tendencies Measured with Motor Evoked Potentials Induced by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. PLOS ONE, 14(5), e0217266. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217266

@article{moorsRoleStimulusdrivenGoaldirected2019,
  title = {The Role of Stimulus-Driven versus Goal-Directed Processes in Fight and Flight Tendencies Measured with Motor Evoked Potentials Induced by {{Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation}}},
  author = {Moors, Agnes and Fini, Chiara and Everaert, Tom and Bardi, Lara and Bossuyt, Evelien and Kuppens, Peter and Brass, Marcel},
  editor = {Avenanti, Alessio},
  year = {2019},
  month = may,
  journal = {PLOS ONE},
  volume = {14},
  number = {5},
  pages = {e0217266},
  issn = {1932-6203},
  doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0217266},
  url = {https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217266},
  langid = {english}
}

Verschooren, S., Liefooghe, B., Brass, M., & Pourtois, G. (2019). Attentional Flexibility Is Imbalanced: Asymmetric Cost for Switches between External and Internal Attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 45(10), 1399–1414. https://doi.org/10.1037/xhp0000683

@article{verschoorenAttentionalFlexibilityImbalanced2019,
  title = {Attentional Flexibility Is Imbalanced: {{Asymmetric}} Cost for Switches between External and Internal Attention.},
  shorttitle = {Attentional Flexibility Is Imbalanced},
  author = {Verschooren, Sam and Liefooghe, Baptist and Brass, Marcel and Pourtois, Gilles},
  year = {2019},
  month = oct,
  journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance},
  volume = {45},
  number = {10},
  pages = {1399--1414},
  issn = {1939-1277, 0096-1523},
  doi = {10.1037/xhp0000683},
  url = {http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/xhp0000683},
  langid = {english}
}

Wisniewski, D., Forstmann, B., & Brass, M. (2019). Outcome Contingency Selectively Affects the Neural Coding of Outcomes but Not of Tasks. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 19395. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-55887-0
```
@article{wisniewskiOutcomeContingencySelectively2019,
  title = {Outcome Contingency Selectively Affects the Neural Coding of Outcomes but Not of Tasks},
  author = {Wisniewski, David and Forstmann, Birte and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2019},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Scientific Reports},
  volume = {9},
  number = {1},
  pages = {19395},
  issn = {2045-2322},
  doi = {10.1038/s41598-019-55887-0},
  url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-55887-0},
  langid = {english}
}
```
Abstract Value-based decision-making is ubiquitous in every-day life, and critically depends on the contingency between choices and their outcomes. Only if outcomes are contingent on our choices can we make meaningful value-based decisions. Here, we investigate the effect of outcome contingency on the neural coding of rewards and tasks. Participants performed a reversal-learning paradigm in which reward outcomes were contingent on trial-by-trial choices, and performed a ‘free choice’ paradigm in which rewards were random and not contingent on choices. We hypothesized that contingent outcomes enhance the neural coding of rewards and tasks, which was tested using multivariate pattern analysis of fMRI data. Reward outcomes were encoded in a large network including the striatum, dmPFC and parietal cortex, and these representations were indeed amplified for contingent rewards. Tasks were encoded in the dmPFC at the time of decision-making, and in parietal cortex in a subsequent maintenance phase. We found no evidence for contingency-dependent modulations of task signals, demonstrating highly similar coding across contingency conditions. Our findings suggest selective effects of contingency on reward coding only, and further highlight the role of dmPFC and parietal cortex in value-based decision-making, as these were the only regions strongly involved in both reward and task coding.

2018

Bourguignon, N. J., Braem, S., Hartstra, E., De Houwer, J., & Brass, M. (2018). Encoding of Novel Verbal Instructions for Prospective Action in the Lateral Prefrontal Cortex: Evidence from Univariate and Multivariate Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 30(8), 1170–1184. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01270
```
@article{bourguignonEncodingNovelVerbal2018,
  title = {Encoding of {{Novel Verbal Instructions}} for {{Prospective Action}} in the {{Lateral Prefrontal Cortex}}: {{Evidence}} from {{Univariate}} and {{Multivariate Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Analysis}}},
  shorttitle = {Encoding of {{Novel Verbal Instructions}} for {{Prospective Action}} in the {{Lateral Prefrontal Cortex}}},
  author = {Bourguignon, Nicolas J. and Braem, Senne and Hartstra, Egbert and De Houwer, Jan and Brass, Marcel},
  year = {2018},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience},
  volume = {30},
  number = {8},
  pages = {1170--1184},
  issn = {0898-929X, 1530-8898},
  doi = {10.1162/jocn_a_01270},
  url = {https://direct.mit.edu/jocn/article/30/8/1170-1184/28899},
  langid = {english}
}
```
Verbal instructions are central to humans’ capacity to learn new behaviors with minimal training, but the neurocognitive mechanisms involved in verbally instructed behaviors remain puzzling. Recent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) evidence suggests that the right middle frontal gyrus and dorsal premotor cortex (rMFG-dPMC) supports the translation of symbolic stimulus–response mappings into sensorimotor representations. Here, we set out to (1) replicate this finding, (2) investigate whether this region’s involvement is specific to novel (vs. trained) instructions, and (3) study whether rMFG-dPMC also shows differences in its (voxel) pattern response indicative of general cognitive processes of instruction implementation. Participants were shown instructions, which they either had to perform later or merely memorize. Orthogonal to this manipulation, the instructions were either entirely novel or had been trained before the fMRI session. Results replicate higher rMFG-dPMC activation levels during instruction implementation versus memorization and show how this difference is restricted to novel, but not trained, instruction presentations. Pattern similarity analyses at the voxel level further reveal more consistent neural pattern responses in rMFG-dPMC during the implementation of novel versus trained instructions. In fact, this more consistent neural pattern response seemed to be specific to the first instruction presentation and disappeared after the instruction had been applied once. These results further support a role of rMFG-dPMC in the implementation of novel task instructions and highlight potentially important differences in studying this region’s gross activation levels versus (the consistency of) its response patterns.